Academic study Heterosexuality

1 academic study

1.1 biological , environmental

1.1.1 prenatal hormonal theory
1.1.2 heterosexual behaviors in animals
1.1.3 behavioral studies


1.2 nature , nurture
1.3 critique of studies
1.4 sexual fluidity
1.5 sexual orientation change efforts
1.6 social , historical
1.7 social history , terminology

academic study
biological , environmental

the relationship between biology , sexual orientation subject of research. no simple , singular determinant sexual orientation has been conclusively demonstrated; various studies point different, conflicting positions, scientists hypothesize combination of genetic, hormonal, , social factors determine sexual orientation. biological theories explaining causes of sexual orientation more popular, , biological factors may involve complex interplay of genetic factors , uterine environment, or biological , social factors. these factors, may related development of heterosexual or other orientation, include genes, prenatal hormones, , brain structure , interaction environment.

prenatal hormonal theory

the neurobiology of masculinization of brain understood. estradiol , testosterone, catalyzed enzyme 5α-reductase dihydrotestosterone, act upon androgen receptors in brain masculinize it. if there few androgen receptors (people androgen insensitivity syndrome) or androgen (females congenital adrenal hyperplasia), there can physical , psychological effects. has been suggested both male , female heterosexuality results of variation in process. in these studies heterosexuality in females linked lower amount of masculinization found in lesbian females, though when dealing male heterosexuality there results supporting both higher , lower degrees of masculinization homosexual males.

heterosexual behaviors in animals

most sexual reproduction in animal world facilitated through opposite-sex sexual activity, although there animals reproduce asexually, including protozoa , lower invertebrates.

reproductive sex not require heterosexual orientation, since orientation refers long-term enduring pattern of sexual , emotional attraction leading long-term social bonding, while reproductive sex requires basic act of intercourse fertile ovum sperm, done 1 time only.

behavioral studies


intimate heterosexual couple

at beginning of 20th century, theoretical discussions in field of psychoanalysis posited original bisexuality in human psychological development. quantitative studies alfred kinsey in 1940s , dr. fritz klein s sexual orientation grid in 1980s find distributions similar postulated predecessors.

according sexual behavior in human male alfred kinsey , several other modern studies, majority of humans have had both heterosexual , homosexual experiences or sensations , bisexual. kinsey himself, along current sex therapists, focused on historicity , fluidity of sexual orientation. kinsey s studies consistently found sexual orientation evolves in many directions on person s lifetime; rarely, not necessarily, including forming attractions new sex. individuals radically reorient sexualities rapidly—and still less volitionally—but sexualities expand, shift, , absorb new elements on decades. example, socially normative age-appropriate sexuality requires shifting object of attraction (especially in passage through adolescence). contemporary queer theory, incorporating many ideas social constructionism, tends @ sexuality has meaning within given historical framework. sexuality, then, seen participation in larger social discourse and, though in sense fluid, not strictly determinable individual.

other studies have disputed kinsey s methodology. figures undermined when revealed had disproportionately interviewed homosexuals , prisoners (many sex offenders).

sexologists have attributed discrepancies in findings negative societal attitudes towards particular sexual orientation. example, people may state different sexual orientations depending on whether immediate social environment public or private. reluctance disclose 1 s actual sexual orientation referred being in closet. individuals capable of enjoyable sexual relations both sexes or 1 sex may feel inclined restrict heterosexual or homosexual relations in societies stigmatize same-sex or opposite-sex relations.

nature , nurture

the considerable nature , nurture debate exists on whether predominantly biological or psychological factors produce sexual orientation in humans, or whether both factor sexual orientation. candidate factors include genes, exposure of fetuses hormones (or lack thereof) , environmental factors.

critique of studies

the studies performed in order find origin of sexual orientation have been criticized being limited in scope, focusing on heterosexuality , homosexuality 2 diametrically opposite poles no orientation in between. asserted scientific studies focus on search biological explanation sexual orientation, , not enough on combined effects of both biology , psychology.

in brief council responsible genetics, stated sexual orientation not fixed either way, , on discourse on sexual orientation: noticeably missing debate notion, championed kinsey, human sexual expression variable among people many other complex traits. yet intelligence, sexuality complex human feature modern science attempting explain genetics. research on brain size, hormone levels, finger length, , other biological traits have yet yield evidence this, however. important note traits such these result combination of gene expression , developmental , other environmental factors. well-known biologist , social theorist, anne fausto-sterling advocates in book sexing body, scientists term “systems approach” applied our understanding of sexual preference. rather determining results purely biological processes, trait evolves developmental processes include both biological , social elements. according american psychological association (apa), there numerous theories origins of person s sexual orientation, believe sexual orientation result of complex interaction of environmental, cognitive , biological factors, , genetic factors play significant role in determining person s sexuality.

sexual fluidity

often, sexual orientation , sexual orientation identity not distinguished, can impact accurately assessing sexual identity , whether or not sexual orientation able change; sexual orientation identity can change throughout individual s life, , may or may not align biological sex, sexual behavior or actual sexual orientation. while centre addiction , mental health , american psychiatric association state sexual orientation innate, continuous or fixed throughout lives people, fluid or changes on time others, american psychological association distinguishes between sexual orientation (an innate attraction) , sexual orientation identity (which may change @ point in person s life).

a 2012 study found 2% of sample of 2,560 adult participants reported change of sexual orientation identity after 10-year period. men, change occurred in 0.78% of had identified heterosexual, 9.52% of homosexuals, , 47% of bisexuals. women, change occurred in 1.36% of heterosexuals, 63.6% of lesbians, , 64.7% of bisexuals. researchers suggested heterosexuality may more stable identity because of normative status.

a 2-year study lisa m. diamond on sample of 80 non-heterosexual female adolescents (age 16-23) reported half of participants had changed sexual-minority identities more once, 1 third of them during 2-year follow-up. diamond concluded although sexual attractions appear stable, sexual identities , behaviors more fluid.

in 2004 study, female subjects (both gay , straight women) became sexually aroused when viewed heterosexual lesbian erotic films. among male subjects, however, straight men more turned on erotic films women, gay ones more men. study s senior researcher said women s sexual desire less rigidly directed toward particular sex, compared men s, , more changeable on time.

heteroflexibility form of sexual orientation or situational sexual behavior characterized minimal homosexual activity in otherwise heterosexual orientation considered distinguish bisexuality. has been characterized straight .

sexual orientation change efforts

sexual orientation change efforts methods aim change sexual orientation, used try convert homosexual , bisexual people heterosexuality. scientists , mental health professionals not believe sexual orientation choice. there no studies of adequate scientific rigor conclude sexual orientation change efforts work change person s sexual orientation. efforts have been controversial due tensions between values held faith-based organizations, on 1 hand, , held lgbt rights organizations , professional , scientific organizations , other faith-based organizations, on other. longstanding consensus of behavioral , social sciences , health , mental health professions homosexuality per se normal , positive variation of human sexual orientation, , therefore not mental disorder.

no major mental health professional organization has sanctioned efforts change sexual orientation , virtually of them have adopted policy statements cautioning profession , public treatments purport change sexual orientation. these include american psychiatric association, american psychological association, american counseling association, national association of social workers in usa, royal college of psychiatrists, , australian psychological society. american psychological association states sexual orientation not choice can changed @ , , sexual orientation identity—not sexual orientation—appears change via psychotherapy, support groups, , life events. american psychiatric association says individuals maybe become aware @ different points in lives heterosexual, gay, lesbian, or bisexual . while opposing conversion therapy, encourage gay affirmative psychotherapy , encourages mental health professionals avoid misrepresenting efficacy of sexual orientation change efforts promoting or promising change in sexual orientation when providing assistance individuals distressed own or others sexual orientation , concludes benefits reported participants in sexual orientation change efforts can gained through approaches not attempt change sexual orientation . american psychological association , royal college of psychiatrists expressed concerns positions espoused narth not supported science , create environment in prejudice , discrimination can flourish.

social , historical


an intimate heterosexual couple

since 1960s , 1970s, large body of research has provided evidence , analysis of extent heterosexuality , homosexuality socially organized , historically changing. work challenges assumption heterosexuality, homosexuality, , sexualities of varieties, can understood biological , psychological phenomena.

a heterosexual couple, man , woman in intimate relationship, form core of nuclear family. many societies throughout history have insisted marriage take place before couple settle down, enforcement of rule or compliance has varied considerably. in jurisdictions, when unmarried man , woman live long enough, deemed have established common-law marriage.

social history , terminology

there no real need coin term such heterosexual until there else contrast , compare with. in “the invention of heterosexuality,” jonathon ned katz dates definition of heterosexuality, used today, late 19th century. in victorian era, sex seen means achieve reproduction, relations between sexes not believed overtly sexual. body thought of tool procreation, “human energy, though of closed , severely limited system, used in producing children , in work, not wasted in libidinous pleasures.” modern ideas of sexuality , eroticism began develop in america , germany in later 19th century. changing economy , “transformation of family producer consumer” resulted in shifting values. victorian work ethic had changed, pleasure became more highly valued , allowed ideas of human sexuality change. consumer culture had created market erotic, pleasure became commoditized. @ same time medical doctors began acquire more power , influence. developed medical model of normal love in healthy men , women enjoyed sex part of “new ideal of male-female relationships included.. essential, necessary, normal eroticism.” ‘normal sexual’ ideal had counterpart, victorian sex pervert, failed meet norm. basic oppositeness of sexes basis normal, healthy sexual attraction. “the attention paid sexual abnormal created need name sexual normal, better distinguish average him , deviant it.” creation term ‘heterosexual’ consolidated social existence of pre-existing heterosexual experience , created sense of ensured , validated normalcy within it.