Themes in his philosophy Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard

1 themes in philosophy

1.1 alienation
1.2 abstraction
1.3 death
1.4 dread or anxiety
1.5 despair
1.6 ethics
1.7 individuality
1.8 pathos (passion)
1.9 subjectivity
1.10 3 stages of life

1.10.1 stage one: aesthetic
1.10.2 stage two: ethical
1.10.3 stage three: religious

themes in philosophy
alienation

alienation term philosophers apply wide variety of phenomena, including feeling of separation from, , discontent with, society; feeling there moral breakdown in society; feelings of powerlessness in face of solidity of social institutions; impersonal, dehumanised nature of large-scale , bureaucratic social organisations. kierkegaard recognizes , accepts notion of alienation, although phrases , understands in own distinctly original terms. kierkegaard, present age reflective age—one values objectivity , thought on action, lip-service ideals rather action, discussion on action, publicity , advertising on reality, , fantasy on real world. kierkegaard, meaning of values has been removed life, lack of finding true , legitimate authority. instead of falling claimed authority, literal sacred book or other great , lasting voice, self-aware humans must confront existential uncertainty.

humanity has lost meaning because accepted criterion of reality , truth ambiguous , subjective thought—that cannot proven logic, historical research, or scientific analysis. humans cannot think out choices in life, must live them; , choices think become different once life enters picture. kierkegaard, type of objectivity scientist or historian might use misses point—humans not motivated , not find meaning in life through pure objectivity. instead, find through passion, desire, , moral , religious commitment. these phenomena not objectively provable—nor come through form of analysis of external world; come through direct relationship between 1 , external world. here kierkegaard s emphasis on relationship rather analysis. relationship way of looking @ one’s life evades objective scrutiny.

kierkegaard s analysis of present age uses terms resemble not coincident hegel , marx s theory of alienation. kierkegaard expressly means human beings alienated god because living in world. individuals need gain souls world because belongs god. kierkegaard has no interest in external battles karl marx does. concern inner fight faith.

let speak further wish , thereby sufferings. discussion of sufferings can beneficial if addresses not self-willfulness of sorrow but, if possible, addresses sorrowing person upbuilding. legitimate , sympathetic act dwell on suffering, lest suffering person become impatient on our superficial discussion in not recognize suffering, lest reason impatiently thrust aside consolation , strengthened in double-mindedness. 1 thing go out life wish when wished becomes deed , task; else go out life away wish.

abraham had leave ancestral home emigrate alien nation, nothing reminded him of loved – indeed, no doubt consolation nothing calls mind 1 wishes forget, bitter consolation person full of longing. person can have wish him contains everything, in hour of separation, when pilgrimage begins, if emigrating foreign country nothing contrast reminds him, loss, of wished; can seem him if emigrating foreign country if remains @ home perhaps in same locality – losing wish among strangers, take leave of wish seems him harder , more crucial take leave of senses.

apart wish, if still not move spot, life’s troublesome way perhaps spent in useless sufferings, speaking of suffer essentially, not of have consolation sufferings benefit of cause, benefit of others. bound – journey foreign country not long; in 1 moment there, there in strange country suffering ones meet, not have ceased grieve, not tears eternity cannot wipe away, old devotional book , movingly says, “how can god dry tears in next world if have not wept?” perhaps else comes in different way, same place.

søren kierkegaard, upbuilding discourses in various spirits, hong 1993 p. 102-103

albert camus wrote idea of being stranger in world reversed kierkegaard s meaning. stranger camus living in world forced exist in christian way though individual not want christian. kierkegaard discussing christian wants christian living in world has abandoned christianity. both camus , kierkegaard had in common equal distaste christian democracy forced take positive part in christianity because freedom of choice lacking , in non-christian democracy none allowed take active part in christianity. kierkegaard against voting christianity, him, christ authority. camus called existential attitude philosophical suicide. how put in myth of sisyphus , other writings

now, admitted absurd contrary of hope, seen existential thought chestov (lev shestov 1866-1938) presupposes absurd proves dispel it. such subtlety of thought conjuror’s emotional trick. when chestov elsewhere sets absurd in opposition current morality , reason, calls truth , redemption. hence, there in definition of absurd approbation chestov grants it. perceptible in leo chestov perhaps more in kierkegaard. sure, hard outline clear propositions in elusive writer. but, despite apparently opposed writings, beyond pseudonyms, tricks, , smiles, can felt throughout work, were, presentiment (at same time apprehension) of truth bursts forth in last works: kierkegaard likewise takes leap. kierkegaard’s view despair not fact state: state of sin. sin alienates god. absurd, metaphysical state of consciousness of man, not lead god. perhaps notion become clearer if risk shocking statement: absurd sin without god. matter of living in state of absurd. taking liberty @ point of calling existential attitude philosophical suicide. not imply judgment. convenient way of indicating movement thought negates , tends transcend in negation. existential negation god. precise, god maintained through negation of human reason. (let me assert again: not affirmation of god questioned here, rather logic leading affirmation.) albert camus, myth of sisyphus , other essays p. 26-32 vintage books 1955 alfred knopf

kierkegaard put way in 3 edifying discourses 1843 , concluding unscientific postscript (1846).

getting majority vote on one’s side , one’s god-relationship transformed speculative enterprise on basis of probability , partnership , fellow shareholders first step toward becoming objective.

concluding unscientific postscript, hong p. 66


the love covers multitude of sins in never deceived. when heart niggardly, when 1 gives 1 eye , 7 eyes looks see 1 in return, 1 discovers multitude of sins. when heart filled love, eye never deceived; love when gives, not scrutinize gift, eye fixed on lord. when heart filled envy, eye has power call forth uncleanness in pure; when love dwells in heart, eye has power foster in unclean; eye not see evil pure, loves , encourages loving it. there power in world words turns evil, put there power above turns evil good; power love covers multitude of sins.

when hate dwells in heart, sin lies @ man’s door, , manifold desires exist in him; when love dwells in heart, sin flees far away, , sees no more. when disputes, malice, wrath, quarrels, dissensions, factions fill heart, 1 need go far in order discover multitudinousness of sin, or man need love long produce these outside of himself! when joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness , temperance dwell in heart, wonder, then, man, if surrounded multitude of sins, remains alien, stranger, understands little customs of country, if these explained him? not this, then, covering of multitude of sins?

soren kierkegaard 3 edifying discourses 1843, swenson translation 1943 p. 69

love not seek own. love not seek own, there no mine , yours in love. “mine” , “yours” relational specifications of “one’s own”; thus, if there no mine , yours, there no “one’s own” either. if there no “one’s own” @ all, of course impossible seek one’s own. justice identified giving each own, in turn claims own. means justice pleads cause of own, divides , assigns, determines each can lawfully call own, judges , punishes if refuses make distinction between mine , yours. individual has right pleases contentious , yet legally entitled mine; , if seeks own in no other way justice allows, justice has nothing reproach him , has no right upbraid him anything. defrauded of own, or defrauds of own, justice intervenes, because safeguards common security in has own, rightfully has.-but change intrudes, revolution, war, earthquake, or such terrible misfortune, , confused. justice tries in vain secure each person own; cannot maintain distinction between mine , yours; in confusion cannot keep balance , therefore throws away scales-it despairs! terrible spectacle! yet not love in sense, if in blissful way, produce same confusion? love, event, greatest of all, yet happiest. love change, remarkable of all, desirable-in fact in sense gripped love changed or becomes changed. love revolution, profound of all, blessed!

soren kierkegaard, works of love, 1847, hong 1995 264-265


abstraction

an element of kierkegaard s critique of modernity in socio-political work, 2 ages, mention of money — calls abstraction. abstraction has reality in ersatz reality. not tangible, , has meaning within artificial context, serves devious , deceptive purposes. figment of thought has no concrete reality, neither nor in future.

how money abstraction? money gives illusion has direct relationship work done. is, work 1 worth much, equals money. in reality, however, work 1 expression of 1 person; expresses 1 s goals in life , associated meaning. person, work 1 performs supposed external realization of 1 s relationship others , world. 1 s way of making world better place oneself , others. reducing work monetary value replace concrete reality of 1 s everyday struggles world —to give shape, form , meaning— abstraction. kierkegaard lamented young man today scarcely envy capacities or skill or love of beautiful girl or fame, no, envy him money. give me money, young man say, , right. kierkegaard thinks emphasis on money leads denial of gifts of spirit poor , in misery.

do not forget , share – hebrews 13.16 - not forget either incessant talk worldliness beneficence , benevolence , generosity , charitable donations , gift upon gift merciless. ah, let newspaper writers , tax collectors , parish beadles talk generosity , count , count; let never ignore christianity speaks of mercifulness, christianity least of guilty of mercilessness, if poverty , misery not needed money etc. excluded highest, being able generous, beneficent, benevolent. people prattle , prate ecclesiastically-worldly , worldly-ecclesiastically generosity, beneficence-but forget, in sermon, mercifulness. preaching should indeed solely , mercifulness. if know how speak effectually this, generosity follow of , come accordingly individual capable of it. bear in mind, if person raised money, money, money speaking generosity-bear in mind, being silent mercifulness acting mercilessly toward poor , miserable person whom procured relief means of money of wealthy generosity. bear mind, if poverty , misery disturb pleas, can of course manage them through generosity; bear in mind, more appalling if constrained poverty , misery “to hinder our prayers,” scripture says (1 peter 3:7), grumbling against god-because atrociously unfair poverty , misery not telling able practice mercifulness. shall adhere point in discourse mercifulness , guard ourselves against confusing mercifulness linked external conditions, is, love such not have in power, whereas has mercifulness in power surely has heart in bosom. not follow because person has heart in bosom has money in pocket, first still more important , decisive regard mercifulness. soren kierkegaard, works of love hong 1995 p. 315-316

below 3 quotes concerning kierkegaard s idea of abstraction cannot thought without thinking concretion. moves world historical, general, single individual, specific. first esthete , second ethicist in either/or , third book explained previous works; concluding unscientific postscript.

as has been noted above, classic productions stand equally high, because each 1 stands infinitely high. if, despite fact, 1 attempt introduce order of rank classic procession, 1 evidently have choose basis such distinction, not essential; if basis essential, difference become essential difference; again follow word “classic” wrongly predicated of group whole. more abstract idea is, smaller probability of numerous representation. how idea become concrete? being permeated historical consciousness. more concrete idea, greater probability. more abstract medium, smaller probability; more concrete, greater. mean medium concrete, other language, or seen in approximation language; language concrete of media. idea, example, comes expression in sculpture wholly abstract, , bears no relation historical; medium through expressed likewise abstract, consequently there great probability section of classic works includes sculpture contain few. in have testimony of time , experience on side. if, on other hand, take concrete idea , concrete medium, seems otherwise. homer indeed classic poet, because epic idea concrete idea, , because medium language, happens in section of classics contains epic, there many epics conceivable, equally classic, because history furnishes new epic material. in too, have testimony of history , assent of experience. either/or part i, swenson p. 49, 53

the 2 positions touched on here regarded attempts actualize ethical life-view. reason not succeed individual has chosen himself in isolation or has chosen himself abstractly. in other words, individual has not chosen himself ethically. therefore has no connection actuality, , when case no ethical way of life can put practice. person chooses himself ethically chooses himself concretely specific individual, , achieves concretion because choice identical repentance, ratifies choice. individual these capacities, these inclinations, these drives, these passions, influenced specific social milieu, specific product of specific environment. becomes aware of this, takes upon himself responsibility of it. not hesitate on whether take particular thing or not, knows if not more important lost. in moment of choice, in complete isolation, withdraws social milieu, , yet @ same moment in absolute continuity, chooses himself product. , choice freedom’s choice in such way in choosing himself product can said produce himself. @ moment of choice, @ point of consummation, personality consummating itself, , yet @ same moment @ beginning, because choosing himself according freedom. either/or part ii, hong p. 251

when in pure thinking mention made of immediate unity of reflection-in-itself , reflection-in-the-other , of annulment of immediate unity, must indeed come between elements of immediate unity. this? yes, time. time cannot assigned place within pure thinking. what, then, annulment , transition , new unity signify? what, if anything, mean think in such way 1 merely makes show of because said absolutely revoked? , mean not admit 1 thinks way continually proclaim housetops positive truth of pure thinking? existence has joined thinking , existing, inasmuch existing person thinking person, there 2 media: medium of abstraction , medium of actuality. pure thinking yet third medium, invented. begins, said, after exhaustive abstraction. pure thinking is-what shall say-piously or thoughtlessly unaware of relation abstraction still continually has abstracts. here in pure thinking there rest every doubt; here eternal positive truth , whatever 1 cares say. means pure thinking phantom. , if hegelian philosophy free postulates, has attained 1 insane postulate: beginning of pure thinking. existing person, existing him highest interest, , interestedness in existing in actuality. actuality cannot rendered in language of abstraction. actuality inter-esse [between being] between thinking , being in hypothetical unity of abstraction. abstraction deals possibility , actuality, conception of actuality false rendition, since medium not actuality possibility. annulling actuality can abstraction grasp it, annul precisely change possibility. within abstraction said actuality in language of abstraction said within possibility. is, in language of actuality abstraction related actuality possibility, not actuality within abstraction , possibility. actuality, existence, dialectical element in trilogy, beginning , end of cannot existing person, qua existing in dialectical element. abstraction merges trilogy. quite right. how it? abstraction it, or not act of abstractor? abstractor is, after all, existing person, , existing person consequently in dialectical element, cannot mediate or merge, least of absolutely, long existing. if it, must related possibility actuality, existence himself is. must explain how goes it-that is, how existing person goes it, or whether ceases existing person, , whether existing person has right that. begin ask such questions, asking ethically , maintaining claim of ethical upon existing person, cannot supposed abstract existence, supposed exist, existing person’s highest interest.

søren kierkegaard, concluding unscientific postscript, vol 1, p. 314-315 hong translation


death

death inevitable , temporally unpredictable. kierkegaard believed individuals needed sincerely , intensely come realize truth of fact in order live passionately. kierkegaard accuses society of being in death-denial. though people see death around them , grasp objective fact dies, few people understand, subjectively , inwardly, die someday. example, in concluding unscientific postscript, kierkegaard notes people never think say, shall attend party, must make exception contingency roof tile happens blow down , kill me; in case, cannot attend. jest far kierkegaard concerned. there earnestness involved in thought of death. kierkegaard said following death in 3 upbuilding discourses, 1844.

we shall not decide life fights fight easily, agree every human being ought fight fight, no 1 shut out, , yet glorious if granted once past generation under exceptional circumstances-yes, description envy , discouragement know how give! difference same in connection thought of death. human being born, begins die. difference there people whom thought of death comes existence birth , present them in quiet peacefulness of childhood , buoyancy of youth; whereas others have period in thought not present them until, when years run out, years of vigor , vitality, thought of death meets them on way. who, now, going decide life easier, whether life of continually lived reserve because thought of death present them or life of abandoned life forgot existence of death?

dread or anxiety

for kierkegaard s author, vigilius haufniensis, anxiety/dread/angst (depending on translation , context) unfocused fear. haufniensis uses example of man standing on edge of tall building or cliff. height can see possibilities of life. s reflecting on become if threw himself power of own choice. long stands there stands @ crossroads of life, unable make decision , live within boundaries. mere fact 1 has possibility , freedom something, terrifying of possibilities, triggers immense feelings of dread. haufniensis called our dizziness of freedom.

anxiety may compared dizziness. eye happens down yawning abyss becomes dizzy. reason this? in own eye in abyss, suppose had not looked down. hence, anxiety dizziness of freedom, emerges when spirit wants posit synthesis , freedom looks down own possibility, laying hold of finiteness support itself. freedom succumbs dizziness. further this, psychology cannot , not go. in moment changed, , freedom, when again rises, sees guilty. between these 2 moments lies leap, no science has explained , no science can explain. becomes guilty in anxiety becomes ambiguously guilty possible become. vigilius haufniensis, concept of anxiety p. 61

in concept of anxiety, haufniensis focuses on first anxiety experienced man: adam s choice eat god s forbidden tree of knowledge or not. since concepts of , evil did not come existence before adam ate fruit, dubbed original sin, adam had no concept of , evil, , did not know eating tree evil. did know god told him not eat tree. anxiety comes fact god s prohibition implies adam free , choose obey god or not. after adam ate tree, sin born. so, according kierkegaard, anxiety precedes sin, , anxiety leads adam sin. haufniensis mentions anxiety presupposition hereditary sin.

however, haufniensis mentions anxiety way humanity saved well. anxiety informs of our choices, our self-awareness , personal responsibility, , brings state of un-self-conscious immediacy self-conscious reflection. (jean-paul sartre calls these terms pre-reflexive consciousness , reflexive consciousness.) individual becomes aware of potential through experience of dread. so, anxiety may possibility sin, anxiety can recognition or realization of 1 s true identity , freedoms.

whoever has learned anxious in right way has learned ultimate. … anxiety freedom’s possibility, , such anxiety through faith absolutely educative, because consumes finite ends , discovers deceptiveness. , no grand inquisitor has such dreadful torments in readiness anxiety has, , no secret agent knows cunningly anxiety attack suspect in weakest moment or make alluring trap in caught, , no discerning judge understands how interrogate , examine accused anxiety, never lets accused escape, neither through amusement, nor noise, nor during work, neither day nor night.

despair

is despair merit or defect? purely dialectically both. if 1 think of despair in abstract, without reference particular despairer, 1 have enormous merit. possibility of sickness man’s advantage on beast, , advantage characterizes him quite otherwise upright posture, bespeaks infinite erectness or loftiness of being spirit. possibility of sickness man’s advantage on beast; aware of sickness christian’s advantage on natural man; cured of sickness christian’s blessedness.

most emphatically in sickness unto death, kierkegaard s author argues human self composition of various aspects must brought conscious balance: finite, infinite, consciousness of relationship of 2 itself, , consciousness of power posited self. finite (limitations such imposed 1 s body or 1 s concrete circumstances) , infinite (those capacities free limitations such imagination) exist in state of tension. tension between 2 aspects of self must brought balance. when self out of balance, i.e., has wrong understanding of because conceives in terms of own limiting circumstances (and fails recognize own freedom determine be) or in terms of be, (thus ignoring own circumstances), person in state of despair. notably, anti-climacus says 1 can in despair if 1 feels happy. despair not emotion, in deeper sense loss of self, i.e., describes state when 1 has wrong conception of oneself. in either/or, , judge william each has 1 epistolary novel in 2 volumes. aesthete aware can use power of interpretation define , takes valuable. knows can shape , reshape own self-identity. nothing binds him relationships. nothing binds him past actions. in end though, knows lacks consistent understanding of is. lacks self resists own power of reinterpretation. older friend judge william, argues deeper concept of selfhood discovered 1 commits 1 s actions, , takes ownership of past , present. concept of oneself, particular human being, begins take form in 1 s own consciousness. perspective, 1 in individual can find measure of freedom despair, available person religious faith. attunes individual or can recognize has been there: self realized within circumstances finds right now, i.e., inner attunement brings sort of synthesis between infinite , finite. in fear , trembling, johannes de silentio argues choice of abraham obey private, unethical, commandment of god sacrifice son reveals faith entails: directs consciousness absolutely toward absolute rather merely ethical, i.e., practices inner spirituality seeks before god rather seeking understand himself ethically upright person. god requires more being good, demands seek out inner commitment him. if abraham blithely obey, actions have no meaning. when acts fear , trembling demonstrates full awareness murdering son absolutely wrong, ethically speaking.

despair has several specific levels person can find themselves, each 1 further in despair last laid out in sickness unto death.

the first level despair ignorant of being despair or despairing ignorance of having self , eternal self. level 1 has wrong conception of self is, i.e., ignorant of how realize self 1 potentially is. in sense, person not recognize own despair because measures success of life based on whether himself judges himself happy. regardless of whether know in despair or not, kierkegaard asserts, can still in state. notes common in world.

the next level of despair despair conscious of being despair , therefore conscious of having self in there eternal , either in despair not or in despair wills itself. becomes further subdivided 3 categories: despair not or want oneself, despair not self, , lowest, despair wish new self. these 3 divisions self-worth person has , amount understand own despair. despair not oneself pretty straightforward. person sees themself unworthy , such not see themself worthy before not understand. despair not self deeper, because not wish self wish not have relation god or @ least see 1 s relation god unworthy, , shrink it. lowest form of group, however, desire new self. logically deepest form assumes deepest understanding of 1 s despair. once in despair, without complete relation god 1 in despair, in level 1 understands permanence of despair. despair in group arises nature of sensate things , physical desires. these 3 sub groups grouped under heading despair on earthly.

the second level of conscious despair under heading despair on eternal. in level views themself in light of own weakness. unlike in upper level, weakness understood , such, instead of turning faith , humbling oneself before god, despair in own weakness , unworthiness. in sense, despair on eternal , refuse comforted light of god.

the last , lowest form of despair desire in despair oneself. last form of despair referred kierkegaard demonic despair (note term demonic used in classical greek sense, not modern sense). in form of despair, individual finds him or herself in despair, understands in despair, seeks way alleviate it, , yet no forthcoming. result, self becomes hardened against form of , if god in heaven , angels offered him aid, not want it. @ level of despair individual revels in own despair , sees own pain lifting them above base nature of other humans not find in state. least common form of despair , kierkegaard claims found in true poets. despair can called despair of defiance, despair strikes out against eternal. 1 last note 1 travels further down forms of despair, number of people in each group becomes fewer.

ethics

in fear , trembling, johannes de silentio analyzes abraham s action sacrifice isaac. silentio argues abraham knight of faith.

many philosophers read kierkegaard, kierkegaard s (written under pseudonym of johannes de silentio) fear , trembling, come conclusion kierkegaard supports divine command law of ethics. divine command theory metaethical theory claims moral values whatever commanded god or gods. however, kierkegaard not arguing morality created god; instead, argue divine command god transcends ethics. distinction means god not create human morality: individuals create our own morals , values. religious person must prepared event of divine command god take precedence on moral , rational obligations. kierkegaard called event teleological suspension of ethical. abraham, knight of faith, chose obey god unconditionally, , rewarded son, faith, , title of father of faith. abraham transcended ethics , leaped faith.

but there no valid logical argument 1 can make claim morality ought or can suspended in given circumstance, or ever. thus, silentio believes ethics , faith separate stages of consciousness. choice obey god unconditionally true existential either/or decision faced individual. either 1 chooses live in faith (the religious stage) or live ethically (the ethical stage).

in either/or, kierkegaard insists single individual has ethical responsibility of life. however, wants enjoy , ethics gets in way of person s enjoyment of life if taken extremes. results in battle between want live pleasure , demand ethical existence. kierkegaard points toward religious goal, eternal happiness , or salvation of soul highest good. says, whatever want, remember soul belongs god, not world.

by have seen in life ethical individual goes through stages set forth separate stages. going develop in life personal, civic, religious virtues, , life advances through continually translating himself 1 stage another. person thinks 1 of these stages adequate , dares concentrate on one-sidedly, has not chosen himself ethically has failed see significance of either isolation or continuity , above has not grasped truth lies in identity of two. person has ethically chosen , found himself possess himself defined in entire concretion. possesses himself individual has these capacities, these passions, these inclinations, these habits, subject these external influences, influenced in 1 direction , in thus. here possesses himself task in such way chiefly order, shape, temper, inflame, control-in short, produce evenness in soul, harmony, fruit of personal virtues. either/or part 2, hong p. 262

resignation has made individual face or has seen face toward eternal happiness τέλος ( end , purpose , or goal ). τέλος not element among other elements. both-and of mediation not better, though less naïve, described jovial chatter includes everything. @ moment of resignation, of collecting oneself, of choice individual allowed salute absolute τέλος-but then, comes mediation. so, too, dog can taught walk on 2 legs moment then, comes mediation, , dog walks on 4 legs – mediation that. spiritually understood, human being’s upright walk absolute respect absolute τέλος, otherwise walks on fours. when matter of relative elements mediation has significance (that equal before mediation), when matter of absolute end or goal, mediation means absolute τέλος reduced relative τέλος. not true, either, absolute τέλος becomes concrete in relative ends, because resignation’s absolute distinction @ every moment safeguard absolute τέλος against fraternizing. true individual oriented toward absolute τέλος, in relative ends, not in them in such way absolute τέλος exhausted in them. true before god , before absolute τέλος equal, not true god or absolute τέλος equal else me or particular individual. may commendable particular individual councilor of justice, worker in office, no.1 lover in society, virtuoso on flute, captain of popinjay shooting club, superintendent of orphanage, noble , respected father-in short, devil of fellow can both-and has time everything. let councilor take care not become devil of fellow , proceed both , have time direct life toward absolute τέλος. in other words, both-and means absolute τέλος on same level else. absolute τέλος has remarkable quality of wanting absolute τέλος @ every moment. if, then, @ moment of resignation, of collecting oneself, of choice, individual has understood this, surely cannot mean supposed have forgotten next moment. therefore, said before, resignation remains in individual , task far getting absolute τέλος mediated sorts of both-and that, on contrary, aim @ form of existence permanently has pathos of great moment. concluding unscientific postscript, hong, p. 400-401

in works of love , purity of heart, kierkegaard skillfully examines christian ethics , maxim, love thy neighbour. kierkegaard stressed christianity discovered neighbor .

test it, place middle term between lover , beloved neighbor, whom 1 shall love, place middle term between 2 friends neighbor, whom 1 shall love, , see jealousy. yet neighbor self-denial’s middle term steps in between self-love’s , i, between erotic love’s , friendship’s , other i. .... love neighbor therefore eternal equality in loving. equality not make distinctions , eternal equality unconditionally not make slightest distinction, unqualifiedly not make slightest distinction. essential christian weighty, in movements earnest scurry about, dancing, in frivolity of such facile talk higher, highest, , supremely highest. think of cultured person, 1 of whom admiringly say, “he cultured!” think of christianity, says him, “you shall love neighbor!” of course, social courtesy, politeness toward people, friendly condescension toward inferiors, boldly confident attitude before mighty, beautifully controlled freedom of spirit, yes, culture – believe loving neighbor? neighbor have equality of human being before god. god middle term. soren kierkegaard, works of love, 1847, hong p. 44-61

individuality

for kierkegaard, true individuality called selfhood. becoming aware of our true self our true task , endeavor in life—it ethical imperative, preparatory true religious understanding. individuals can exist @ level less true selfhood. can live, example, in terms of our pleasures—our immediate satisfaction of desires, propensities, or distractions. in way, glide through life without direction or purpose. have direction, must have purpose defines meaning of our lives. kierkegaard puts way in either/or,

here, then, have view of life, and, believe me, of life become clear if consider along me thought-despair. hater of activity in life-quite appropriately, because if there meaning in life must have continuity, , life not have. keep busy studies, sure; diligent; sake, , done little teleology possible. moreover, unoccupied; laborers in gospel standing idle in marketplace, stick hands in pocket , contemplate life. rest in despair. nothing concerns you; step aside nothing; “if threw roof tile down still not step aside.” dying person. die daily, not in profound, earnest sense in 1 understands these words, life has lost reality , “always count days of life 1 termination-notice next.” let pass by; nothing makes impact. comes along grips you, idea, situation, young girl’s smile, , “involved,” on occasions not “involved,” @ other times “at service” in every way. wherever there going on join in. behave in life in crowd. “you work tightest group, see it, if possible, shoved on others come above them, , there make comfortable possible, , in way let carried through life.” when crowd gone, when event over, again stand on street corner , @ world. either/or part ii p. 195-196, 272ff

in sickness unto death kierkegaard deals self product of relations. in sense, human results relation between infinite (noumena, spirit, eternal) , finite (phenomena, body, temporal). not create true self, human can live without self defines it. instead, self or ability self created relation absolute or god (the self can realized through relation god) arises relation between relation of finite , infinite relating human. positive relation.

an individual person, kierkegaard, particular no abstract formula or definition can ever capture. including individual in public (or crowd or herd ) or subsuming human being member of species reduction of true meaning of life individuals. philosophy or politics try categorize , pigeonhole individuals group characteristics, each own individual differences. in 4 upbuilding discourses, 1843 kierkegaard says differences aren t important, likeness god brings equality.

in hallowed places, in every upbuilding view of life, thought arises in person’s soul him fight fight flesh , blood, principalities , powers, , in fight free himself equality before god, whether battle more war of aggression against differences want encumber him worldly favoritism or defensive war against differences want make him anxious in worldly perdition. in way equality divine law, in way struggle truth, in way victory have validity- when single individual fights himself himself within himself , not unseasonably presume whole world obtain external equality, of little benefit, less because never existed, if no other reason come thank him , become unequal before him, in way equality divine law. eighteen upbuilding discourses, soren kiekegaard hong, p. 143

kierkegaard s critique of modern age, therefore, loss of means individual. modern society contributes dissolution of means individual. through production of false idol of public , diverts attention away individuals mass public loses in abstractions, communal dreams, , fantasies. helped in task media , mass production of products keep distracted. fight temporal equality distraction. in works of love writes,

to bring similarity among people in world, apportion people, if possible equally, conditions of temporality, indeed preoccupies worldliness high degree. may call well-intentioned worldly effort in regard never comes understanding christianity. well-intentioned worldliness remains piously, if will, convinced there must 1 temporal condition, 1 earthly dissimilarity – found means of calculations , surveys or in whatever other way – equality. works of love, søren kierkegaard, 1847, hong 1995 p. 71-72 see p. 61-90

although kierkegaard attacked public , supportive of communities:

in community, individual is, crucial prior condition forming community. … every individual in community guarantees community; public chimera, numerality everything…

pathos (passion)

for kierkegaard, in order apprehend absolute, mind must radically empty of objective content. supports radical emptying, however, desire absolute. kierkegaard names desire passion.

in line philosophy, scholars have drawn similarities between stoics concept of apatheia , subjective truth highest form of wisdom. stoics, pathos (passion) perturbation man has overcome in similar manner kierkegaard s concept of objective truth.

according kierkegaard, human self desires beyond reason. desire appears desire infinite, plato once wrote. desire propagate, according plato, kind of desire immortality—that is, wish live on in time through our children , children. erotic love appears example of desire beyond purely finite. taste of be, if continue beyond boundaries of time , space. analogy implies, humans seek beyond here , now. question remains, however, why human pathos or passion precious thing? in ways, might have our status existential beings. not thought gets through life—it action; , motivates , sustains action passion, desire overcome hardships, pain, , suffering. passion enables die ideals in name of higher reality. while scientist might see plain emotion or simple animal desire, kierkegaard sees binds source of life itself. desire live, , live in right way, right reasons, , right desires, holy , sacred force. kierkegaard christian action should have ground in love, passion.

if unwilling learn christianity love himself in right way, cannot love neighbor either. can perhaps hold or few other persons, “through thick , thin,” called, no means loving neighbor. love in right way , love neighbor correspond 1 another, fundamentally 1 , same thing. when law’s has wrested self-love christianity sadly enough must presuppose in every human being, have learned love yourself. law therefore: shall love in same way love neighbor when love him yourself.

whoever has knowledge of people admit has wished able move them relinquish self-love, has had wish possible teach them love themselves. when bustler wastes time , powers in service of futile, inconsequential pursuits, not because has not learned rightly love himself? when light-minded person throws himself nonentity folly of moment , makes nothing of it, not because not know how love himself rightly?

when depressed person desires rid of life, indeed of himself, not because unwilling learn earnestly , rigorously love himself? when surrenders despair because world or person has faithlessly left him betrayed, fault (his innocent suffering not referred here) except not loving himself in right way? when self-tormentingly thinks god service torturing himself, sin except not willing love himself in right way? , if, alas, person presumptuously lays violent hands upon himself, not sin precisely this, not rightly love himself in sense in person ought love himself?

oh, there lot of talk in world treachery, , faithlessness, and, god us, unfortunately true, still let never because of forget dangerous traitor of 1 every person has within himself. treachery whether consists in selfishly loving oneself or consists in selfishly not willing love oneself in right way – treachery admittedly secret. no cry raised in case of treachery , faithlessness. not therefore more important christianity’s doctrine should brought mind again , again, person shall love neighbor himself, ought love himself? … shall love – this, word of royal law. works of love, hong p. 22-24

one can @ perspective of meaning of our existence is. why suffer humans have suffered, pain , despair—what meaning can of have? kierkegaard, there no meaning unless passion, emotions , of humans, has divine source.

passion closely aligned faith in kierkegaard s thought. faith passion drives humans seek reality , truth in transcendent world, though can know intellectually speaks against it. live , die belief, stake 1 has , in belief in has higher meaning in world—this belief , passion @ highest.

kierkegaard wrote of subjective thinker s task in concluding unscientific postscript. intellectual reason had been deified hegel in theology , kierkegaard felt lead objectification of religion.

there old proverb: oratio, tentatio, meditatio, faciunt theologum [prayer, trial, meditation, make theologian]. similarly, subjective thinker, imagination, feeling , dialectics in impassioned existence-inwardness required. first , last, passion, because existing person impossible think existence without becoming passionate, inasmuch existing prodigious contradiction subjective thinker not abstract, easy, in remain. in world-historical dialectic, individuals fade away humankind; in dialectic such impossible discover , me, individual existing human being, if new magnifying glasses concrete invented. subjective thinker dialectician oriented existential; has intellectual passion hold firm qualitative disjunction. but, on other hand, if qualitative disjunction used flatly , simply, if applied altogether abstractly individual human being, 1 can run ludicrous risk of saying infinitely decisive, , of being right in 1 says, , still not least thing. therefore, in psychological sense remarkable see absolute disjunction deceitfully used evasion. when death penalty placed on every crime, result no crimes @ punished. same absolute disjunction when applied flatly , simply; silent letter-it cannot pronounced or, if can pronounced, says nothing. subjective thinker, therefore, has intellectual passion absolute disjunction belonging existence, has final decision prevents ending in quantifying. has readily available, not in such way abstractly recurring it, frustrates existence. subjective thinker, therefore, has esthetic passion , ethical passion, whereby concretion gained. existence-issues passionate, because existence, if 1 becomes conscious of it, involves passion. think them leave out passion not think them @ all, forget point 1 indeed oneself , existing person. yet subjective thinker not poet if poet, not ethicist if ethicist, dialectician , himself existing, whereas poet’s existence inessential in relation poem, , likewise ethicist’s in relation teaching, , dialectician’s in relation thought. subjective thinker not scientist-scholar; artist. exist art. subjective thinker esthetic enough life have esthetic content, ethical enough regulate it, dialectical enough in thinking master it. subjective thinker’s task understand himself in existence. p. 350-351

subjectivity

johannes climacus, in concluding unscientific postscript philosophical fragments, writes following cryptic line: subjectivity truth . understand climacus s concept of individual, important @ says regarding subjectivity. subjectivity? in rough terms, subjectivity refers personal individual—what makes individual in distinction others. inside—what individual can see, feel, think, imagine, dream, etc. opposed objectivity—that outside individual, individual , others around can feel, see, measure, , think about. way interpret subjectivity unique relationship between subject , object.

johann fichte wrote subjectivity in 1799 book vocation of man.

i must, however, remind reader speaks in book not author himself, earnest wish reader should himself assume character, , should not rest contented mere historical apprehension of here said, , truly, during reading, hold converse himself, deliberate, draw conclusions, , form resolutions, representative in book, and, own labour , reflection, developed out of own soul, , build within himself, mode of thought mere picture of laid before him in work. preface

scientists , historians, example, study objective world, hoping elicit truth of nature—or perhaps truth of history. in way, hope predict how future unfold in accordance these laws. in terms of history, studying past, individual can perhaps elicit laws determine how events unfold—in way individual can predict future more exactness , perhaps take control of events in past appeared fall outside control of humans.

in respects, climacus did not have problems science or scientific endeavor. not disregard importance of objective knowledge. scientist or historian finds certainty, however, climacus noted accurately results in science change tools of observation change. climacus s special interest in history. vehement attacks came against believed had understood history , laws—and doing ascertain human’s true self is. is, assumption studying history can come know person. kierkegaard accused hegel s philosophy of falling prey assumption. explained in, concluding unscientific postscript:

it existing spirit asks truth, presumably because wants exist in it, in case questioner conscious of being existing individual human being. in way believe able make myself understandable every greek , every rational human being. if german philosopher follows inclination put on act , first transforms himself superrational something, alchemists , sorcerers bedizen fantastically, in order answer question truth in extremely satisfying way, of no more concern me satisfying answer, no doubt extremely satisfying-if 1 fantastically dressed up. whether german philosopher or not doing can ascertained enthusiasm concentrates soul on willing allow himself guided sage of kind, , uncritically uses guidance compliantly willing form existence according it. when person learner enthusiastically relates in way such german professor, accomplishes superb epigram upon him, because speculator of sort served learner’s honest , enthusiastic zeal expressing , accomplishing, existentially appropriating wisdom, since wisdom herr professor himself has imagined , has written books has never attempted himself. has not occurred him should done. customers clerk who, in belief business merely write, wrote himself not read, there speculative thinkers merely write, , write which, if read aid of action, if may put way, proves nonsense, unless perhaps intended fantastical beings. p. 191

hegel wanted philosophize christianity had no intention ever become christian. climacus, individual comes know intensely personal , passionate pursuit of give meaning life. existing individual, must come terms everyday life, overcome obstacles , setbacks, must live , die, single individual has life no 1 else ever live. in dealing life brings way, individual must encounter them psycho-physical resources.

subjectivity individual—and no 1 else—has. mean have this? cannot understood in same way having car or bank account. means becoming someone—it means being person past, present, , future. no 1 can have individual s past, present or future. different people experience these in various ways—these experiences unique, not else s. having past, present, , future means person existing individual—that person can find meaning in time , existing. individuals not think existence, born. once born , past age, individual begins make choices in life; choices can his, parents , society’s, etc. important point exist, individual must make choices—the individual must decide next moment , on future. individual chooses , how chooses define , is—to himself , others. kierkegaard put way in works of love, 1847:

we reluctant make young person arrogant prematurely , teach him busy judging world. god forbid should able contribute developing malady in person. indeed, think ought make life strenuously inwardly beginning has else think about, because no doubt morbid hatred of world that, perhaps without having considered enormous responsibility, wants persecuted. on other hand reluctant deceive young person suppressing difficulty , suppressing @ moment endeavor recommend christianity, inasmuch moment speak. put our confidence in boldly daring praise christianity, addition in world reward, put mildly, ingratitude. regard our duty continually speak in advance, not praise christianity omission of difficult, , @ other times, perhaps on occasion of particular text, hit upon few grounds of comfort person tried , tested in life. no, when christianity being praised strongly, difficulty must simultaneously emphasized. (….) christianly world’s opposition stands in essential relationship inwardness of christianity. moreover, person chooses christianity should @ moment have impression of difficulty can know is choosing. soren kierkegaard, works of love, hong 1995, p. 193-194

the goal of life, according socrates, know thyself. knowing oneself means being aware of 1 is, 1 can , 1 cannot be. kierkegaard uses same idea socrates used in own writings. asks 1 wants single individual following questions in 1847 book, upbuilding discourses in various spirits

everyone must make accounting god individual; king must make accounting god individual, , wretched beggar must make accounting god individual – lest arrogant being more individual, lest despondently think not individual, perhaps because in busyness of world not have name designated number. else, indeed, accounting of eternity voice of conscience installed eternally in eternal right voice! .... living in such way aware of being single individual , thereby aware of eternal responsibility before god; living in such way awareness can acquire time , stillness , liberty withdraw life, honorable occupation, happy domestic life – on contrary, awareness support , transfigure , illuminate conduct in relationships of life. not withdraw , sit brooding on eternal accounting, whereby take on new responsibility. find more , more time duties , tasks, while concern eternal responsibility keep being busy , busily taking part in possible – activity can best called waste of time. .... have made mind how want perform work, or continually of 2 minds because want in agreement crowd? stick bid, not defiantly, not despondently, eternally concerned; you, unchanged, continue bid on same thing , want buy same thing while terms variously being changed? .... hiding nothing suspicious in soul, still wish things different, dare robber-like seize reward yourself, dare parade it, dare point it; wish adversity did not exist because constrains in selfishness that, although suppressed, yet foolishly deludes thinking if lucky worth talking about, deludes forgetting devout wise person wishes no adversity away when befalls him because cannot know whether might not indeed him, forgetting devout wise person wins beautiful victory when powerful 1 persecuted him wants, say, spare him, , wise 1 replies: cannot unconditionally wish it, because cannot know whether persecution might not indeed me. doing out of fear of punishment, scowl when good, in dreams @ night wish punishment away , extent good, , in daydreams delude thinking 1 can serve slavish mind?

soren kierkegaard, upbuilding discourses in various spirits, 1847, hong p. 127-140

subjectivity comes consciousness of myself self. encompasses emotional , intellectual resources individual born with. subjectivity individual human being. problem of subjectivity decide how choose—what rules or models individual going use make right choices? right choices? defines right? individual, true himself, actions should in way expressed describe , himself , others. problem, according kierkegaard, must choose , based on subjective interests—the individual must make choices mean him reasoning, feeling being.

kierkegaard decided step tree of knowledge of , evil himself, replacing adam, , make choice in presence of god, no 1 there accuse or judge him creator. had abraham in fear , trembling. how kierkegaard thought learning oneself takes place. here single individual learns guilt , innocence. book, concept of anxiety, makes clear adam did have knowledge when made choice , knowledge of freedom. prohibition there freedom , eve , adam decided use it.

in kierkegaard s meaning, purely theological assertions subjective truths , cannot either verified or invalidated science, i.e. through objective knowledge. him, choosing if 1 or against subjective truth purely arbitrary choice. calls jump objective knowledge religious faith leap of faith, since means subjectively accepting statements cannot rationally justified. him christian faith result of trajectory initiated such choices, don t have , cannot have rational ground (meaning reason neither or against making such choices). objectively regarded, purely theological assertions neither true nor false.

three stages of life

early american kierkegaard scholars tried reduce complexity of kierkegaard s authorship focusing on 3 levels of individual existence, named in passing 1 of kierkegaard s pseudonyms, johannes climacus, wrote concluding unscientific postscript. though stages represent 1 way of interpreting kierkegaard s thought, has become popular way of introducing authorship. in continental european circles, stage theory never took hold in same way. typifies kierkegaard talking throughout writing career. american scholars , european circles denote partitions of thought concerning writings of works. against reflecting oneself out of reality , partitioning world of spirit because world of spirit cannot objectively divided. wrote hegel s stages in book, lectures on philosophy of religion:

these stages may compared of ages of man. child still in primal immediate unity of nature, representing both own nature , nature surrounds him. second stage, adolescence, when individuality in process of becoming independent, living spirituality, vitality of spirit, while setting no end before yet, moves forward, has aspirations, , takes interest in comes way. third age of manhood; period of work particular end, man makes himself subserviently, devotes energies. finally, old age might considered last stage, having universal before end, , recognizing end, has turned particular interests of life , work universal aim, absolute final end, , has, were, gathered out of wide , manifold interests of actual outward existence , concentrated in infinite depths of inner life. such determinations follow in logical manner nature of notion. @ close become apparent original immediacy not exist immediacy, posited. child begotten. george wilhelm friedrich hegel, lectures on philosophy of religion vol 1 translated rev. e b speiers 1895 p. 266ff

in world of spirit, different stages not cities on journey, quite right traveler directly, example: left peking , came canton , in canton on fourteenth. traveler changes places, not himself; , alright him mention , recount change in direct, unchanged form. in world of spirit change place changed oneself, , there direct assurance of having arrived here , there attempt la munchausen. presentation demonstrates 1 has reached far place in world of spirit. ... pseudonymous author , along them subjective. ask nothing better known in our objective times person not capable of being objective. subjectivity, inwardness, truth, existing decisive factor, way take christianity, precisely inwardness, please note, not every inwardness, why preliminary stages had insisted upon-that idea, thought had found similar endeavor in pseudonymous writings, , have tried make clear interpretation of them , relation fragments. søren kierkegaard, concluding unscientific postscript philosophical fragments, 1846, hong translation 1992

in 1 popular interpretation of stage theory, each of so-called levels of existence envelops below it: ethical person still capable of aesthetic enjoyment, example, , religious person still capable of aesthetic enjoyment , ethical duty. difference between these ways of living internal, not external, , there no external signs 1 can point determine @ level person living. inner , outer relationship commonly determined individual looking others gauge 1 s action, kierkegaard believed 1 should oneself , in relationship christ example instead of looking @ others because more @ others less see of yourself. makes easier degrade neighbor instead of loving neighbor. 1 must love person 1 sees not person 1 wishes see. either love person see person person or stop talking loving everyone.

back stages. markedly different either/or tripartition. there 3 stages, esthetic, ethical, religious, yet not abstract immediate mediate, unity, concrete in qualification of existence categories pleasure-perdition, action-victory, suffering. despite tripartition, book nevertheless either/or. is, ethical , religious stages have essential relation each other. inadequacy of either/or work ended ethically, has been shown. in stages has been made clear, , religious maintained in place. .... story of suffering; suffering religious category. in stages esthete no longer clever fellow frequenting b s living room — hopeful man, etc., because still possibility; no, existing [existerer]. same either/or. constantin constantius , young man placed in quidam of experiment. (humor advanced.) concluding unscientific postscript, hong p. 294, journals of søren kierkegaard, vib 41:10

christ’s love peter boundless in way: in loving peter accomplished loving person 1 sees. did not say, “peter must first change , become person before can love him again.” no, said opposite, “peter peter, , love him. love, if him become person.” therefore did not break off friendship in order perhaps renew if peter have become person; no, preserved friendship unchanged , in way helped peter become person. think peter have been won again without christ’s faithful friendship? easy friend when means nothing else request in particular friend and, if friend not respond request, let friendship cease, until perhaps begins again if responds request. relationship of friendship? closer helping erring 1 person calls himself friend, if offense committed against friend! friend withdraws , says (indeed, if third person speaking): when has become person, perhaps can become friend again. not far regarding such behavior magnanimous. far being able of such friend in loving loves person sees. christ’s love boundless, must if fulfilled: in loving love person 1 sees. easy perceive. , in whatever way person changed, still not changed in such way becomes invisible. if this-the impossible-is not case, of course see him, , duty love person 1 sees. ordinarily think if person has changed worse, changed exempt loving him. christianity asks: can because of change no longer see him? answer must be: can see him; see no longer worth loving. if see this, not see him (which cannot deny doing in sense), see unworthiness , imperfection , thereby admit when loved him did not see him in sense merely saw excellence , perfections, loved.

søren kierkegaard, works of love (1847) hong 1995 p. 172-173

when person whom possible pertains relates himself equally duality of possible, say: expects. expect contains within same duality possible has, , expect relate oneself possible purely , such. relationship divides according way expecting person chooses. relate oneself expectantly possibility of hope, reason cannot temporal expectancy eternal hope. relate oneself expectancy possibility of evil fear. both 1 hopes , 1 fears expecting. soon, however, choice made, possible changed, because possibility of eternal. in moment of contact duality of possible equal; therefore, decision choose hope, 1 decided infinitely more seems, because eternal decision.

people think speaking ample experience in dividing person’s life periods , ages , call first period age of hope or of possibility. nonsense! thus, in talk hope leave out eternal , yet speak hope. how possible, since hope pertains possibility of good, , thereby eternal! on other hand, how possible speak hope in such way assigned age! surely eternal extends on whole of life , there , should hope end; there no period age of hope, person’s whole life should time of hope! , think speaking ample experience hope-by abolishing eternal.

søren kierkegaard, works of love (1847) hong 1995 p. 249-251


stage one: aesthetic

kierkegaard interested in aesthetics, , referred poet-philosopher because of passionate way in approached philosophy. said interested in showing inadequacy of life lived entirely in aesthetic level. aesthetic life defined in numerous different ways in kierkegaard s authorship, including life defined intellectual enjoyment, sensuous desire, , inclination interpret oneself if 1 on stage. there many degrees of aesthetic existence , single definition difficult offer. @ bottom, 1 might see purely unreflective lifestyle. @ top, might find lives lived in reflective, independent, critical , socially apathetic way. many interpreters of kierkegaard believe people live in least reflective sort of aesthetic stage, lives , activities guided everyday tasks , concerns. fewer aesthetically guided people reflective sort. whether such people know or not, lives inevitably lead complete despair. kierkegaard s author example of individual living aesthetic life.

you love accidental. smile pretty girl in interesting situation, stolen glance, hunting for, motif aimless fantasy. pride on being observateur must, in return, put becoming object of observation. ah, strange fellow, 1 moment child, next old man; 1 moment thinking earnestly important scholarly problems, how devote life them, , next lovesick fool. long way marriage. either/or part ii p. 7-8

just consider, life passing; you, too, time come when life @ end, when no longer shown further possibilities in life, when recollection alone left, recollection, not in sense in love much, mixture of fiction , truth, earnest , faithful recollection of conscience. beware not unroll list you-presumably not of actual crimes of wasted possibilities, showdown pictures impossible drive away. intellectual agility possess becoming youth , diverts eye time. astonished see clown joints loose restraints of man’s gait , posture annulled. in intellectual sense; can stand on head on feet. possible you, , can surprise , others possibility, unhealthy, , own peace of mind beg watch out lest advantage end becoming curse. man has conviction cannot @ pleasure turn himself , topsy-turvy in way. therefore not warn against world against , world against you. either/or ii, hong p. 16

stage two: ethical

the second level of existence ethical. individual begins take on true direction in life, becoming aware of , responsible , evil , forming commitment oneself , others. 1 s actions @ level of existence have consistency , coherence lacked in previous sphere of existence. many readers of kierkegaard, ethical central. calls each individual take account of lives , scrutinize actions in terms of absolute responsibility, kierkegaard calls repentance. if compare kierkegaard s idea of ethics vedic system of 4 aims of life, ethical system correlates dharma - following or religion,set of rules, laws etc. (hindus call religion dharma , though dharma law).

repents himself himself, family, race, until finds himself in god. on condition can choose himself. , condition wants, in way can choose himself absolutely. .... “i repent myself out of whole existence. repentance expresses evil belongs me , @ same time expresses not belong me. if evil in me did not belong me, not choose it; if there in me not choose absolutely, not choosing myself absolutely @ all, myself not absolute product. .... sign of brought child inclined sorry without pondering whether in right or not, , likewise sign of high-minded person , deep soul if inclined repent, if not take god court repents , loves god in repentance. without this, life nothing, foam. ... either/or erected between living esthetically , living ethically not unqualified dilemma, because matter of 1 choice. through choice, choose between , evil, choose good, choose eo ipso choice between , evil. original choice forever present in every succeeding choice. søren kierkegaard, either/or part ii, hong, p. 216-217, 224, 237-238, 219

judge wilhelm, pseudonymous author of either/or , voice defines ethical consciousness, argues commitment take responsibility 1 s own choices must made individually. take responsibility various relationships in individual finds him- or herself possibility open every human being, not follow every human being chooses matter of course. meaning of person s life wilhelm depends on how takes responsibility current , future choices, , how takes ownership of choices made. wilhelm, ethically governed person takes responsibility past actions, , bad, seeks consistency, , takes obligation live in passionate , devoted way.

the christian god spirit , christianity spirit, , there discord between flesh , spirit flesh not sensuous-it selfish. in sense, spiritual can become sensuous-for example, if person took spiritual gifts in vain, carnal. , of course know not necessary christian christ must have been physically beautiful; , grievous-for reason different 1 give-because if beauty essential, how believer long see him; no means follows sensuous annihilated in christianity. first love has element of beauty in itself, , joy , fullness in sensuous in innocence can caught in christianity. let guard against 1 thing, wrong turn more dangerous 1 wish avoid; let not become spiritual. either/or part ii p. 50

the question, namely, this: can love actualized? after having conceded point, perhaps say: well, difficult actualize marriage actualize first love. must respond: no, in marriage there law of motion. first love remains unreal in never acquires inner substance because moves in external medium. in ethical , religious intention, marital love has possibility of inner history , different first love historical unhistorical. love strong, stronger whole world, moment doubts annihilated; sleepwalker able walk dangerous places complete security plunges down when calls name. marital love armed, in intention not attentiveness directed surrounding world directed toward itself, toward inner world. either/or ii p. 94

the choice crucial content of personality: through choice personality submerges in being chosen, , when not choose, withers away in atrophy. ... imagine captain of ship moment shift of direction must made; may able say: can either or that. if not mediocre captain aware during ship ploughing ahead ordinary velocity, , there single moment when inconsequential whether or that. person-if forgets take account velocity-there comes moment no longer matter of either/or, not because has chosen, because has refrained it, can expressed saying: because others have chosen him-or because has lost himself. either/or ii p. 163-164

stage three: religious

the ethical , religious intimately connected: person can ethically serious without being religious, religious stage includes ethical. whereas living in ethical sphere involves commitment moral absolute, living in religious sphere involves commitment , relation christian god. kierkegaard explained in concluding unscientific postscript this:

johannes seducer ends thesis woman moment. in general sense essential esthetic thesis, moment , extent, in turn, nothing, sophistic thesis true nothing true. on whole conception of time decisive element in every standpoint paradox, paradoxically accentuates time. degree time accentuated, same degree there movement esthetic, metaphysical, ethical, religious, , christian-religious. johannes seducer ends, judge begins: woman’s beauty increases years. here time accentuated ethically, still not in such way precludes possibility of recollection’s withdrawal out of existence eternal. p. 298-299

if man kant, standing on pinnacle of scientific scholarship, in reference demonstrations of existence of god: well, not know more father told me so-this humorous , says more whole book demonstrations, if book forgets this. p. 552-553

the kierkegaardian pseudonyms speak of stage theory consider religion highest stage in human existence. in 1 discussion of religious life, 1 of kierkegaard s pseudonyms, johannes climacus, distinguishes 2 types within stage, have been called religiousness , religiousness b. 1 type symbolized greek philosopher socrates, passionate pursuit of truth , individual conscience came conflict society. type of religiousness 1 characterized realization individual sinful , source of untruth. in time, through revelation , in direct relationship paradox jesus, individual begins see or eternal salvation rests on paradox—god, transcendent, coming time in human form redeem human beings. kierkegaard, notion of occurring scandalous human reason—indeed, must be, , if not 1 not understand incarnation nor meaning of human sinfulness. kierkegaard, impulse towards awareness of transcendent power in universe religion is. religion has social , individual (not personal) dimension. begins individual , or awareness of sinfulness. here several quotes kierkegaard s discusses concept of sin.

the sin/faith opposition christian 1 transforms ethical concepts in christian way , distils 1 more decoction them. @ root of opposition lies crucial christian specification: before god; , in turn has crucial christian characteristic: absurd, paradox, possibility of offense. , of utmost importance demonstrated in every specification of christian, since offense christian protection against speculative philosophy. in what, then, find possibility of offense here? in fact person should have reality of being, particular human being, directly before god, , accordingly, again, , same token, man’s sin should of concern of god. notion of single human being before god never occurs speculative thought; universalizes particular human phantastically human race. reason disbelieving christianity came idea sin sin, neither here nor there whether before god. in other words, wanted rid of specification ‘before god’, , end invented new wisdom, nevertheless, curiously enough, neither more nor less higher wisdom is-old paganism. sickness unto death, hannay, 1989 p. 115

admittance through consciousness of sin; want enter other road high treason against christianity. … simple soul humbly acknowledges himself sinner, himself (the single individual), has no need @ learn difficulties come when 1 neither simple or humble. … extent christianity, terrifying, rise against him , transform madness or horror until either learns give christianity or-by means of scholarly propaedeutics, apologetics, etc., means of anguish of contrite conscience, in proportion need-learns enter christianity narrow way, through consciousness of sin. practice in christianity, hong, 1991, p. 67-68