History Wolf hunting

1 history

1.1 europe , russia
1.2 asia
1.3 north america

history

the european grey wolf (canis lupus lupus) popular quarry in europe of middle ages



farmer ilmari takkala , last wolf in central finland killed in karstula


europe , russia

in ad 46-120, first wolf bounty reportedly opened when solon of athens offered 5 silver drachmas hunter killing male wolf, , 1 every female.

in ancient rome, treatment given wolves differed treatment meted out other large predators. romans seem have refrained intentionally harming wolves. instance, not hunted pleasure (but in order protect herds out @ pasture), , not displayed in venationes, either.the special status of wolf not based on national ideology, rather connected religious importance of wolf romans.

in england of 950, king athelstan imposed annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on welsh king hywel dda, imposition maintained until norman conquest of england. @ time, several criminals, rather being put death, ordered provide number of wolf tongues annually. norman kings (reigning 1066 1154) employed servants wolf hunters , many held lands granted on condition fulfilled duty. william conqueror granted lordship of riddesdale in northumberland robert de umfraville on condition defend land enemies , wolves. there no restrictions or penalties in hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under reasoning temptation commoner shoot deer there great. king john gave premium of 10 shillings capture of 2 wolves. king edward vi reigned 1272 1307 ordered total extermination of wolves in kingdom , employed 1 peter corbet, instructions destroy wolves in counties of gloucestershire, herefordshire, worcestershire, shropshire , staffordshire, areas near welsh marches wolves more common in southern areas of england. james of scotland passed law in 1427 requiring 3 wolf hunts year between april 25 august 1, coinciding wolf s cubbing season. wolf became extinct in england during reign of henry vii (1485–1509).

wolf hunt gerard rijsbrack, depicting wolf hunt french king s hounds, 3rd quarter of 18th century

it known wolves survived in scotland until 18th century. mary, queen of scots, known have hunted wolves in forest of atholl in 1563. stories on killing of alleged last wolf of scotland vary. official records indicate last scottish wolf killed sir ewan cameron in 1680. popular folklore on other hand tells of how old man named macqueen of pall à chrocain in findhorn valley of morayshire killed last wolf in 1743.

ireland throughout of first half of 17th century had substantial wolf population of not less 400 , may high 1000 wolves @ 1 time. although irish hunted wolves, evident documentary data did not see same need english exterminate wolves. although wolves perceived threats, nonetheless seen natural parts of irish landscapes. level of rewards , bounties established oliver cromwell s regime after cromwellian conquest of ireland attracted few professional wolf hunters ireland, england. politically, prospect of numbers of armed irish roaming around country hunting wolves not acceptable, given ongoing conflict between irish , new english settlers, seen safer english authorities encourage men own country deal wolf problem. wolves exterminated ireland in late 18th century, 1786.

coat of arms of marquis of flamarens grand wolfcatcher. grand wolfcatcher placed arms between 2 wolf heads symbol of office.

in 9th century france, charlemagne founded elite corps of crown funded officials called luparii , purpose control wolf populations in france during middle ages. luparii responsible initial reduction of wolf populations in france, become decimated in later centuries. office of luparii today known wolfcatcher royal. on 9 august 1787 office of luparii dissolved because of financing issues during french revolution reinstated twelve years later napoleon. after revolution ended, wolf hunting no longer activity reserved aristocracy. wolves killed monetary rewards equivalent month s pay. 1818 1829, 1400 wolves killed each year. high kill rate coincided increased distribution of flintlocks. @ dawn of 19th century, there 5000 wolves in france, number reduced half amount 1850. 1890, wolf population had been reduced 1000 animals, , further fell 500 in 1900 because of increased usage of strychnine. wolves temporarily increased during first world war, though time ended, population estimated between 150 , 200 animals. last confirmed french wolf kill occurred in 1937. extinction of wolf in metropolitan france, office of wolfcatcher royal modified in 1971 , serves administrative function regulating vermin , maintaining healthy wildlife populations.

wolf bounties regularly paid in italy during 12th , 13th centuries , 1950 s. gian galeazzo visconti himself offered ten imperial marks every wolf killed. 600 wolves recorded have been bountied between 14th , 19th centuries. presentation of killed wolf authorities obligatory. authorities had give accurate testimony description of presented animal (gender, weight, measurements, color, estimated age, etc.) , symptomatic ascertainment of eventual rabies infections. wolf s paw amputated and/or ears sealed in wax in order avoid spoils being represented elsewhere. 1 case of fraudulence in 1834, punished arrest, occurred. italian wolf hunters lacked organisation or determination of french counterparts, having not formed special hunting teams. wolves exterminated alps in 19th century, though never exterminated in peninsula.

in switzerland, conflicts between humans , wolves reached peak in 16th century, amid large-scale deforestations. wolves became extinct in zürich in 1684. later exterminated appenzell ausserrhoden in 1695, , schaffhausen in 1712. last known traces of wolves in central switzerland date 1707 in zug, 1753 in uri , 1793 in glarus. wolves became extinct in engadin in 1821. between 1762 , 1842, 80 wolves recorded have been bountied in vaud. wolves further exterminated in valais in 1870, ticino in 1872 , solothurn in 1874. wolves migrated switzerland in small numbers in 20th century. in 1908, wolf shot in ticino, , further 2 killed in 1914 in lignerolle.

in 19th century spain, principality of asturias passed act between march , december 1816 paying out bounties death of 76 adult , 414 young wolves @ 160 reales adult wolf , 32 wolf cub. hunting of wolves represented considerable source of wealth local populations, lobero or wolf-hunter being respected county figure.

in 1856 brochure, hungarian nationalist exile istván türr noted, among many other grievances against habsburg rule in country, (...) since restriction of liberty of hunting , seizure of arms in hungary, wild beasts have multiplied, that, besides enormous damage done crops, flocks, , poultry, wolves venture, not villages, towns, , besides doing fearful depredations, attack people. number of kreisjager (district huntsmen appointed government) not sufficient destroy them; arid in consequence of universal dislike public functionaries, increased still more circumstance not hungarians, landed proprietors not allow them hunt on grounds. 1 of these huntsmen told me nobleman, being requested allow him kill wolves in forest, refused saying, no, sir! wolves belong me, not government.

the swedish kings magnus eriksson , christopher of bavaria decreed wolf hunting civic duty, priests, parish clerks , landless women exempted. sweden s first wolf bounty opened in 1647. bounties remained in force in new laws of kingdom of sweden 1734. hundreds of sami extirpated wolves in organized drives. in 1960s, wolf numbers rapidly declined onset of snow mobiles used hunting. sweden s last wolf killed in 1966, after which, species declared legally protected , recolonized area.

norway followed similar pattern sweden, last wolf being killed in 1976, before becoming being protected , recolonizing area.

in lithuanian ssr, hunting of wolves formally permitted year long killing cubs in dens , payment of monetary rewards. number of wolves in times in lithuania fell 20-40 individuals.

in communist romania, 2,800 wolves killed between 1955 , 1965. during reign of nicolae ceauşescu, reward equal quarter of month s pay offered rangers killing wolf cubs. full-grown wolves killed method @ resulted in as half-month s pay.

in croatia, between 1986 , 2004, 115 wolf deaths recorded, of 54% due shooting. during period, number of dead wolves found ranged 0-15 annually. lowest kill rates occurred in late 1980s, 1990s, coinciding start of croatian war of independence in former state.

a russian wolf hunt, portrayed on wolf hunting nikolai sverchkov, 1862

in czarist russia, before emancipation reform of 1861, wolf hunting done solely authorized firearm holders, police, soldiers, rich landowners or nobles. upon learning of frequency of attacks on livestock , humans, czarist ministry of interior sent agents western europe in order learn how people there dealt wolf problems. upon returning, ministry of internal affairs developed plan in 1846 deal wolves involving opening of wolf bounties , appointment of government hunters. each hunter given jurisdiction hunt in 1 district, more 1 large areas. hunters given 3 rubles each male wolf killed , 1.5 each cub, tail presented proof. each hunter receive annual salary of 60 rubles year, provided killed 15 adults , 30 cubs year. peasant hunters, however, rewarded, because of corrupt bureaucrats stealing money. in 1858, after paying equivalent of $1,250,000 on million wolves in central russia, officials became suspicious, , discovered hunters bought wolf pelts low prices, cut them , handed them magistrates wolf tails. in later years of 19th century, russian hunting societies began energetic campaign against wolves. in 1897, members of moscow hunting society killed first 1000 wolves, though number of professional wolf hunters @ time rather low. serfs began hunting wolves after emancipation in 1861, though success, civilian firearms highly expensive, , cheaper ones primitive , unable bear heavy ammunition necessary kill wolves.

after russian revolution (1917), newly formed soviet government worked heavily eradicate wolves , other predators during extensive land reclamation program. during eastern front, wolf populations increased, though after nazi germany s defeat, wolf hunts resumed. end of war , onset of aerial hunting, ussr destroyed 42,300 wolves in 1945, 62,700 wolves in 1946, 58,700 wolves in 1947, 57,600 in 1948, , 55,300 in 1949. 1950 1954, average of 50,000 wolves killed annually. in 1966, wolves had been exterminated in 30 oblasts of rsfsr. during time, wolf depredations on humans , livestock had dropped factor of ten. however, publishing of russian translation of farley mowatt s fictional book never cry wolf, wolf hunts decreased in popularity. amid public outcry, czarist , soviet records of wolf attacks on both livestock , people ignored , wolf hunts decreased in number, allowing wolves multiply. 15,900 wolves reportedly culled rsfsr in 1978, compared 7,900 2 years prior. increase in population, twice many wolves culled in 1980s in prior decade. wolves became extinct in wrangel island in 1980s. in 1984, rsfsr had on 2,000 wolf hunting brigades consisting of 15,000 hunters killed 16,400 wolves. overall, soviet union culled on 1,500,000 wolves cost of 150,000,000 rubles on bounties alone. dissolution of soviet union, many wolf bounties lowered or dropped altogether. wolf hunting continues in russia, @ expense of individual hunters rather government.

asia

a tibetan wolf, hunted in tibet in 1938

in india, hindus traditionally considered hunting of wolves, dangerous ones taboo, fear of causing bad harvest. santals, however, considered them fair game, every other forest dwelling animal. in 1876, in north-west provinces , bihar state of british india, 2,825 wolves killed in response 721 fatal attacks on humans. 2 years later, 2,600 wolves killed in response attacks leaving 624 humans dead. wolf exterminations remained priority in nwp , awadh through 1920s, because wolves reportedly killing more people other predator in region. female cubs bountied 12 indian annas, while males 8. higher rewards of 5 rupees each adult , 1 each cub favored in jaunpur. in gorakhpur, human fatalities highest in summer, reward adult wolf 4 rupees, 3 cub. acts of fraud quite common, bounty hunters presenting golden jackals or exhuming bodies of bountied wolves , presenting them unsuspecting magistrates rewards. overall, thought 100,000 wolves killed in british india between 1871 , 1916.

before onset of meiji restoration period in 1868, wolves had benign rather noxious place in japanese culture , folklore. wolves were, however, hunted. wolf bounties (shōkin) first appeared in morioka horse predation wolves frequent. domain lords pay 700 mon males, , 900 females, though peasants received less. wolves in japan became extinct during meiji restoration period, extermination known ōkami no kujo. wolf deemed threat ranching meiji government promoted @ time, , targeted via bounty system , direct chemical extermination campaign inspired similar contemporary american campaign. starting august 1875, iwate prefecture government offered bounties (shōreikin) of 7¥ male wolves , 8 females. in 1878 in sapporo, decided set higher bounties wolves bears in order further motivate ethnic ainu people killing wolves, once considered sacred them. hokkaido experienced significant development during period , hokkaido wolf suffered resulting environmental disruption. last japanese wolf male killed on 23 january 1905 near washikaguchi (now called higashi yoshiro). carcass bought man working duke of bedford, , subsequently put on display in british museum of natural history.

in mongolian people s republic, mongolian people s revolutionary party organized 2 national wolf hunting weeks, 1 in march , in december. killed wolf , presented pair of ears proof rewarded sheep , felt. each may, government commanded populace scour countryside wolf lairs in effort exterminate wolf pups. when inhabitants of district believed had destroyed last wolf, local government proclaim public holiday. records show 5,000 wolves taken annually in 1930s. 4,000–4,500 wolves killed annually in mongolia in 1976.

in kazakh ssr, 1,000 professional hunters killed thousands of wolves yearly collect government bounties. in 1988, before soviet economy collapsed, hunters killed 16,000 wolves.

north america

in majority of native american hunter-gatherer societies, wolves killed body parts used in rituals, or stop them raiding food caches, though tribes raid wolf dens kill pups when wolf populations became large natives live with. served method of acquiring food, wolf pups considered delicacy. native americans aware of dangers of habituated wolves, , dispatch wolves following them closely. active hunting of wolves rare because many tribes believed such act cause game animals disappear or bring retribution other wolves. cherokee feared unjust killing of wolf bring vengeance of pack mates, , weapon used deed useless in future unless exorcised medicine man. however, kill wolves impunity if knew proper rites of atonement, , if wolves happened raid fish nets. when kwakiutl killed wolf, animal laid out on blanket , have portions of flesh eaten perpetrators, express regret @ act before burying it. ahtna take dead wolf hut, propped in sitting position banquet made shaman set before it. when men eskimo tribes killed wolf, walk around houses 4 times, expressing regret , abstaining sexual relations wives 4 days. young apaches kill wolves, cougars or bears rite of passage. although of first european colonists traveling north america report wolves more populous in new world in europe, writings lewis , clark expedition indicate wolves seldom seen except in aboriginal buffer zones.

a wolfer wolfhounds near amedon, north dakota, 1904



clyde f. briggs stands on 3 toes of harding county

after european colonization of americas, first american wolf bounty passed massachusetts bay colony on november 9, 1630. further wolf bounties opened in jamestown, virginia on september 4, 1632 , in other colonies. payments white settlers included cash, tobacco, wine , corn, while native americans given blankets , trinkets. new jersey law started in 1697 stated christian brought wolf carcass magistrate have been paid 20 shillings, while native american or black have been paid half much. later became customary native americans provide 2 wolf pelts year without payment. in 1688, virginia law abolished requirement of tribute in wolves paid in accordance number of hunters in each tribe, demanding 725 hunters kill 145 wolves year. in 19th century, settlers began increasingly moving west in pursuit of more land ranching, wolves becoming increasingly more hunted threats livestock. in 1818, war of extermination against wolves , bears declared in ohio. iowa began own wolf bounty in 1858, wisconsin , colorado following suit in 1865 , 1869. wolf pelts began increase in demand beavers began become scarce over-trapping. in 1830s, wolf pelt worth $1, doubling in 1850s. records of upper missouri outfit of american fur trading company indicate 20 wolf pelts shipped down-river in 1850, 3,000 being shipped 3 years later. civilians turned bounty hunters known wolfers began killing ungulates in large numbers bait, poisoning meat in hopes of attracting unsuspecting wolves. estimated 1870s, method killing 100,000 wolves annually. between 1916 , 1926 national park service predator control program resulted in extermination of sustainable packs of wolves in yellowstone national park 1926. american wolf hunts peaked in 1920s-1930s, when 21,000 killed annually. after world war ii, wolves seen less varmints , more big game trophy animals.

the first canadian wolf bounty offered in 1793 in ontario , quebec. wolves became rare in eastern canada 1870s, becoming extinct in new brunswick 1880, in nova scotia 1900 , had disappeared newfoundland 1913. full-scale eradication programs did not peak in western , northern canada until 1950s, when resource development brought more people sparsely populated wilderness. government-backed wolf extermination program initiated in 1948 after serious declines in caribou herds in northern territories , rabies concern due wolves migrating south near populated areas. 39,960 cyanide guns, 106,100 cyanide cartridges , 628,000 strychnine pellets distributed. 17,500 wolves poisoned in canada between 1955 , 1961. in mid-1950s, wolf bounties dropped in western provinces in favor of hiring provincial hunters. quebec s wolf bounties ended in 1971 , ontario in 1972. overall, 20,000 wolves bountied between 1935 , 1955 in british columbia, 12,000 between 1942 , 1955 in alberta , 33,000 between 1947 , 1971 in ontario. unlike wolf populations in lower 48 states, declined steadily settlers moved west, canadian wolf population fluctuated between growth , decline, largely because human population in canada never reached same level in lower 48, leaving large areas of land free wolves.

unlike european wolf hunts reserved nobility, north american wolf hunts partaken ordinary citizens, of them possessing firearms, extermination of wolves in lower 48 states carried out in far less time in europe.